Learn more about what you know and know not about prefixes and suffixes.

                            PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES
 STRUCTURE
  Objective
 Introduction
 Prefixes
 Suffixes
 Summary
 Key words
 Self Assessment Questions
 Set – 1
 Set – 2
 Suggested Readings

Objective:
The objective of this lesson is to help the students expand their vocabulary by learning about Prefixes and Suffixes.
Introduction:
Many words in English are formed by combining word elements. These word elements are the prefixes and the suffixes that are added to words to form new words with a different meaning. Recognizing them can help us to understand the meaning of the new word.

Prefixes:
Prefixes are those word elements that are added to the beginning of a word to form a new word.

Prefixes having a negative force: Prefix Meaning Illustration
A - To be without something. Examples: Amoral, Apathy, Asexual, Apolitical, Atheist.
An - To be without something. Examples: anarchy, anonymous, anemic
Anti - To be against or opposite the meaning of original word. Examples: antipathy, antithetical, anticlockwise, antibiotic.
Contra - Against controversy. Examples: contradict, contra vent, contraception
De – use to take away or remove the original meaning from the original word. Examples: Decadence, Decentralize, Deform, Decode, Decline, Devalue, Defrost, Degrade, Debase
Dis – use to bring about the opposite of the original word. Examples: discord, dislike, dishonest, disappear, disobey, displease, distrust
In - used to make opposite, not inarticulate, infinite, indecent, indifferent
Im – to make the opposite of the original word. Examples: impossible, immortal, improper
Il – to make the opposite of the original word. Examples: illogical, illegal, illegitimate
Ir – to make the opposite of the original word. Examples: irregular, irreversible, irrational
Mis – examples:  mischance, misdemeanor
Pseudo - Pseudonym, Pseudo-secularism, Pseudo-classic
Non - Noncommittal, Non- cooperation, nonsense, Nonentity
Un - unnatural, unhappy, undo, unkind, unfold, uncover
Ob - obloquy
Oc- occlude
Counter- counteract, counterattack, counterrevolution
Sine- sinecure

Prefixes referring to size, degree or quality of something
Prefix Meaning Illustration
Arch- highest, first archenemy, archbishop, archetype, architexture
Demi- partly demigod
Extra- outside, beyond extra-curricular, extra ordinary
Extro- ------- do ------ excremental, extrovert
Hyper- excess, above hyper sensitive, hypertension, hyperbola
Hypo- below hypocrite, hypothermia, hypotension, hypoglycemia
Mini- little minibus, miniskirt
Macro- large, long macrocosm, macrobiotic
Out- beyond outdo, outgrow, outshine, outwit
Mega- great, million megalomania, megaton
Super- above, more supernatural, superhuman, superfluous, supervisor
Micro- small microcosm, microscope
Para- beyond parallel, paraphrase, paradox, parasite
Sub- under subdivide, subordinate, subplot, subhuman
Semi- partly semifinal, semicolon, semi-solid
Ultra- beyond ultra violet, ultrasonic, ultra modern
Under- below under estimate, underrate, understatement
Meta- beyond metaphysical, metamorphosis

Prefixes referring to time & order
Prefix Meaning Illustration
Ante- before ante dote, antecedent, antenatal
Ex- former ex-president, ex-husband, ex-mayor
Fore- before forecast, foretell, forenoon
Post- after posthumous, post war, post script, postmortem
Post graduate
Pre- before preamble, preplanned, predestined, preoccupied, premonition
Re- back, again reiterate, reimburse, recall, regain, recover, resettle

Prefixes that referring to number of things
Prefix Meaning Illustration
Bi- two binocular, bilingual, bipolar, biennial, bi-cycle
Mono- one monarchy, monotheism, monopoly, monologue, monotony, monogamy
Multi- many multipurpose, multidimensional, multicolored
Poly- many polygamy, poly clinic
Tri- three tricycle, triangle, tripartite, tri color
Uni- one unilateral, uni color
Di- two dichotomy, dilemma
Olig- few oligarchy
Quadr-, quadri-four quadrilateral, quadruplet
Deca-, dec- ten decade, Decalogue
Hemi- half hemisphere

Prefixes that referring to position or direction
Prefix Meaning Illustration
Inter- between intervene, international, interstate, interjection
Sub- beneath subterranean, subway, subside, submarine
Trans- across transplant, transaction, transport
Tele- far telephone, telegraphic, television, telepathy
Retro- backward retrospect, retroactive, retrograde
Proto- first prototype
Pro- forward, in favour of propulsion, proponent
Prim- first primary, primordial
Intra- within intramural
Intro- within introvert
Dia- across diagonal, diameter

VI Miscellaneous prefixes
Prefix Meaning Illustration
Be- completely behead, beside, befriend, beloved
En- cause to be endanger, endear, enjoy, encyclopedia
Em- cause to be empower, emboss, embitter, emblem
Com together compassion, commingle
Auto- self autobiography, automobile
Ambi- both ambivalent, ambiguous, ambition
Co- with, together cooperation, correspondence, coexist, collaborate
Mis- hated misogynist, misanthrope
Neo- new neo-type, neologism
Per- completely permeable, pervade
Sub subjugate
Suc succumb
Suf under, suffuse
Sug less suggest
Sup supper
Sus suspend, suspicion
Syn with, synchronize
Sym together sympathize
Syl syllogism
Sys system
a in, on, in the state of ashore, amid, asleep
ante- before anteroom, antenatal
by- less important, near by- product, by-election, bystander
equi- equal equidistant, equivalent
geo of the earth geography, geology
homo same homogeneous, homophone







SUFFIXES
A suffix is a syllable or a letter or a group of letters that is added to the end of a word. Occasionally it changes the meaning of the word; more frequently, it serves to change the grammatical form of the word e.g., noun to adjective, adjective to noun, noun to verb. A large number of suffixes are used in English language. For our convenience and easy understanding we can classify them as follows:
Suffixes forming nouns
Suffix Meaning Illustrations
-ITY state of being: credulity, sagacity, possibility, Adversity, vitality, vulgarity, Superiority, probability
-NESS cleverness, boldness, kindness, Sadness, happiness, goodness
-TH truth, depth
-CY accuracy, literacy, constancy, democracy, obstinacy
-ARY dictionary, honorary, luminary
-ISM capitalism, socialism, monotheism, fanaticism, Hinduism, Budhism
-OSIS psychosis, hyposis
-TUDE fortitude, magnitude, certitude, gratitude, solitude
Suffixes forming adjectives
Suffix Illustration
-AL national, educational, emotional, cultural, normal
-Y wealthy, healthy, airy, watery, worthy needy, hungry, worthy, praiseworthy
-LESS faithless, homeless
-ISH foolish, stylish, girlish, childish
-FUL hopeful, fruitful, colorful, playful, meaningful
-IVE attentive, attractive, massive, narrative, derivative
-IC tragic, patriotic, aquatic, poetic, analytic, domestic
-ac cardiac, meniac
-ARIAN disciplinarian
-EAN canadean
-EOUS courteous, piteous
-OUS superstitious, famous, dangerous
-IOUS glorious, superstitious
-SCIOUS, icious audacious, avaricious
-LY womanly, miserly
-LIKE godlike, ladylike
-SOME handsome, quarrelsome, wholesome
-ESQUE picturesque, picaresque
-ING burning, helping
-ED learned, stained, starred, gifted.
-IBLE negligible, reversible
-ABLE considerable, remarkable, portable
-ESE Nepalese
-AN Russian, American, Puritan
-ANT, ent eloquent, suppliant
-ANY honorary
-ESCENT evanescent, pubescent
-FIC terrific, soporific
-IFEROUS pestiferous, vociferous
-IL, ile ceil, puerile
-OID ovoid, anthropoid, spheroid
-OSE verbose
-LEN hopeless, shameless, fearless, endless
-EE trainee, employee, addressee, devotee, Payee
-TH growth, health, stealth
-AL portal, logical, proposal, withdrawal, refusal, arrival, approval
-EER mutineer, engineer, volunteer
-OR author, inspector, protector, actor, debtor
-ESTER youngster, gangster, spinster
-ER painter, baker, swimmer, rider
-ATION examination, irritation, admiration, preservation, sterilization, adoration
-ING slurring, smoking, walking, counseling
-ANT accountant, servant, consultant, assistant, attendant, claimant
-MENT punishment, improvement, development, judgment, agreement
-ENT, eloquent, suppliant
-DOM freedom, wisdom, kingdom
-SHIP hardship, friendship, leadership, and kingship
-LET leaflet, tablet, armlet, booklet
-HOOD childhood, brotherhood, manhood
-EES poetess, authoress, tigress
-FUL spoonful, mouthful
-ERY machinery, archery, slavery, robbery
Suffixes forming Verbs:-
Suffix Illustration
-IZE, (ise) liberalize, commercialize, harmonize
-ER glimmer
-EN shorten, harden, sweeten
-IFY modify, qualify, magnify, petrify
-ATE consecrate, mitigate
-SE cleanse, rinse
Suffixes forming adverbs:-
Suffix Illustration
-WAY straightway, always
-WISE likewise, otherwise
-WARD wayward, upward, toward(s)
-LONG headlong, sidelong
-LY badly, kindly, nearly

Summary:
In this lesson we have discussed about prefixes and suffixes, which will help the students, expand their vocabulary.
Key words: Suffixes, prefixes, vocabulary.


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Mythical facts you don't know about. Read and enjoy.

THE FIFTY MYTHICAL FACTS MOST PEOPLE DON’T KNOW ABOUT

BRAIN POWER

Most People Use Only 10% of Their Brain Power

Some People Are Left-Brained, Others Are Right-Brained

Extrasensory Perception (ESP) Is a Well-Established Scientific Phenomenon

Visual Perceptions Are Accompanied by Tiny Emissions from the Eyes

Subliminal Messages Can Persuade People to Purchase Products

FROM WOMB TO TOMB

Playing Mozart’s Music to Infants Boosts Their Intelligence

Adolescence Is Inevitably a Time of Psychological Turmoil

Most People Experience a Midlife Crisis in | 8 Their 40s or Early 50s

Old Age Is Typically Associated with Increased Dissatisfaction and Senility

When Dying, People Pass through a Universal Series of Psychological Stages

A REMEMBRANCE OF THINGS PAST

Human Memory Works like a Tape Recorder or Video Camera, and Accurate Events We’ve

Experienced

Hypnosis Is Useful for Retrieving Memories of Forgotten Events

Individuals Commonly Repress the Memories of Traumatic Experiences

Most People with Amnesia Forget All Details of Their Earlier Lives

TEACHING OLD DOGS NEW TRICKS

Intelligence (IQ) Tests Are Biased against Certain Groups of People

If You’re Unsure of Your Answer When Taking a Test, It’s Best to Stick with Your Initial

Hunch

The Defining Feature of Dyslexia Is Reversing Letters

Students Learn Best When Teaching Styles Are Matched to Their Learning Styles

ALTERED STATES

Hypnosis Is a Unique “Trance” State that Differs in Kind from Wakefulness

Researchers Have Demonstrated that Dreams Possess Symbolic Meaning

People Can Learn Information, like New Languages, while Asleep

During “Out-of-Body” Experiences, People’s Consciousness Leaves Their Bodies

I’VE GOT A FEELING

The Polygraph (“Lie Detector”) Test Is an Accurate Means of Detecting Dishonesty

Happiness Is Determined Mostly by Our External Circumstances

Ulcers Are Caused Primarily or Entirely by Stress

A Positive Attitude Can Stave off Cancer

THE SOCIAL ANIMAL

Opposites Attract: We Are Most Romantically Attracted to People Who Differ from Us

There’s Safety in Numbers: The More People Present at an Emergency, the Greater the

Chance that Someone Will Intervene

Men and Women Communicate in Completely Different Ways

It’s Better to Express Anger to Others than to Hold It in

KNOW THYSELF

Raising Children Similarly Leads to Similarities in Their Adult Personalities

The Fact that a Trait Is Heritable Means We can’t change it

Low Self-Esteem Is a Major Cause of Psychological Problems

Most People Who Were Sexually Abused in Childhood Develop Severe Personality

Disturbances in Adulthood

People’s Responses to Inkblots Tell Us a Great Deal about Their Personalities

Our Handwriting Reveals Our Personality Traits

SAD, MAD, AND BAD

Psychiatric Labels Cause Harm by Stigmatizing People

Only Deeply Depressed People Commit Suicide

People with Schizophrenia Have Multiple Personalities

Adult Children of Alcoholics Display a Distinctive Profile of Symptoms

There’s Recently Been a Massive Epidemic of Infantile Autism

Psychiatric Hospital Admissions and Crimes Increase during Full Moons

DISORDER IN THE COURT

Most Mentally Ill People Are Violent

Criminal Profiling Is Helpful in Solving Cases

A Large Proportion of Criminals Successfully Use the Insanity Defense

Virtually All People Who Confess to a Crime Are Guilty of It

SKILLS AND PILLS

Expert Judgment and Intuition Are the Best Means of Making Clinical Decisions

Abstinence Is the Only Realistic Treatment Goal for Alcoholics Alcoholics

All Effective Psychotherapies Force People to Confront the “Root” Causes of Their Problems in Childhood

Electroconvulsive (“Shock”) Therapy Is a Physically Dangerous and Brutal Treatment

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Learn the English Language punctuation marks; write like a professor.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION

STRUCTURE

ü  Objective

ü  Introduction

ü  The principal marks of punctuation

ü  Capitalization

ü  Summary

ü  Key words

ü  Self Assessment Questions

Objective:

The objective of this lesson is to make the students understand the use of punctuation and capitalization.

Introduction:

Punctuation is the correct use of the various stops or marks in writing so as to make the meaning of a sentence or a passage clear. The marks of punctuation are a great help to the reader, e.g, compare the following two sentences:-

The inspector says, “ The lady is beautiful.”

“The Inspector,” says the lady, “is beautiful.”

From the above example, it is quite clear that these marks of punctuation may alter the sense of a sentence. Punctuation has a single and practical purpose: to make writing clear and easy to understand. Think of your writing as a set of information rather like a rail timetable or a page on an internet website. All the information can be there but if it is badly laid out it will be confusing and hard to understand. In writing, these marks do the same job as the spaces, columns, and special signs on a timetable and the graphics and other ways of organizing the information on a web page.

The principal marks of punctuation are:

1. Full stop (.)

2. Comma (,)

3. Semi-colon (;)

4. Colon (:)

5. Sign of Interrogation (?)

6. Sign of Exclamation (!)

7. Inverted Commas (“ ”)

8. Apostrophe (')

9. Dash (_)

10. Hyphen (-)

THE FULL STOP (.)

The Full Stop represents the greatest pause and separation.

1.        The full stop indicates the end of a complete sentence. It is used at the end of all sentences except interrogative and exclamatory sentences. Examples: 1. Don’t go there. 2. You should not lose your temper.

2.        It is used after initials or abbreviations: L L.B., M.A., R.K. Kapoor, etc.

Note: Mr, Mrs and Ms can be written without a full stop, as these have come to be considered as the full spellings.

THE COMMA (,)

The comma represents the shortest pause. It is used:

• To separate three or more words of the same parts of speech when only the last are connected by ‘and’. Examples: 1. He is wise, prudent, intelligent and tactful. 2. Wheat, rice, tea and grains are grown in India.

• When words of the same class go together in pairs, each pair is separated by a comma. Examples: 1. Rich and poor, high and low, young and old, all will die. 2. By night or by day, at home or abroad, he is a constant source of anxiety to his father.

• It is used to separate phrases in series. In this case, comma is also used before the ‘and’ preceding the last member of series. Example: She gave Mita a plant, Deepak a tie, and me a beautiful frock.

• It is used to separate clauses in series. Example: I do not know who he is, how he got in, or why he is here.

• It is used before and after a participle phrases when that phrase can be expanded into a sentence. Example: Samudragupta, having defeated the neighbouring kings, led his armies into Deccan.

• A comma is used to separate an infinitive phrases. Example: To prove my point, I produced my birth certificate.

• A comma is used to set off expressions that are in apposition. Example: Swami Dayanand Saraswati, the founder of the Arya Samaj, was a great Vedic scholar.

• A comma is used to separate words or word groups not necessary to the main idea of a sentence: The bridge, I think, will open only to light vehicles.

• It is used to separate sharply contrasting quotations: I want food, not water.

• It is used to separate words that change a statement into a question: You are going, aren’t you?

• It is used to set off a noun of address: Lata, will you not listen to me?

• It is used to set off an absolute construction; The sun having set, we all went home.

• It is used to separate introductory expressions like ‘yes’, ‘No’, ‘Oh’ and ‘well’. Examples: 1. Oh, I don’t know about her. 2. Well, we will try to come. 3. Yes, you can go there.

• A comma is used to set off direct quotations: His mother said, “He will not go there.”

• A comma is used to set off each item in a date: He was born on October 26, 1976.

• A comma is used to set off each item in an address: Our house in Urban Estate, Kurukshetra, is a beautiful one.

• Separate short co-ordinate clauses: Steam propels, elevates, lowers, pumps, drains, pulls, drives etc.

• If a word is repeated for emphasis, each time it is separated with a comma: Cricket, cricket, cricket, you don’t have any other thing to talk about.

• A comma is used to mark the omission of a word, especially a verb: Aisha was wearing a blue dress; Lisa, a red one.

• It is used to separate the adjectives of equal rank: He is kind, noble, honest and sincere.

• It is used before ‘but’ and ‘for’ when they connect clauses. Examples: 1. He is intelligent, but he is not diligent. 2. I went his home, for I wanted to meet him. But it is not used before ‘but’ and ‘for’ when they are used as prepositions. Example: He is intelligent, but lazy. I brought a book for my sister.

• A comma is used when subordinate clause comes before the principal clause. Example: If you do this by tomorrow, I shall be satisfied. But, if the subordinate clause follows the principal clause, it will not be separated by a comma. Example: I shall be satisfied if you do this by tomorrow.

• A comma is used to separate a non defining relative clause from the rest of the clause. Examples are the following:

I am looking for Sonu, who has taken away my book.

I am shifting to Hisar, when I have been posted.

A defining clause is not separated in this way:

I met a girl who has taken away my book.

I am shifting to the city where I have been posted.

SEMI COLON (;)

It represents a longer pause than that indicated by a comma. It is used:

• To separate clauses of a compound sentence if they contain a comma. Examples: 1. He was a brave, large-hearted man; and we all honoured him. 2. Reading makes a full man; speaking, a ready man; writing, an exact man.

• It is used between independent clauses not connected by a conjunction. Examples: 1. Her court was pure; her life serene. 2. He went his way; I went mine.

• It is used before such expressions as however, then, moreover, nevertheless, hence, thus, for instance, consequently, that is, therefore, indeed, still, besides, yet and accordingly, if they come between independent clauses not connected by a conjunction:

Our teacher is very strict; therefore, I do a lot of work.

COLON (:)

It represents a still longer pause than that indicated by the semi-colon. It is used:

·         Before enumeration. Examples: 1. Send me the following articles: pen, paper and note-books. 2. The principal parts of a verb are: the present tense, the past tense and the past participle.

·         To introduce a long quotation. Example: Dr, Johnson says: “Some desire is necessary to keep life in motion.”

·         To introduce an explanation or clarification. Example: This is what I want: a beautiful house with proper furnishing.

·         Between sentences grammatically independent but closely connected in sense. Example: Study to acquire a habit of thinking: no study is more important.

SIGN OF INTEROGATION OR QUESTION MARK; (?)

A sign of interrogation is used after sentences, which ask questions:

What is your name?

Where are you going?

Will you meet me?

It should be noted that the sign of interrogation is never used after an indirect question. Example: He asked her whether she would come to meet him or not.

SIGN OF EXCLAMATION; (!)

·         The sign of exclamation is used after such words, phrases or sentences which express sudden feeling, emotion, excitement, wish, surprise, intense longing etc.: Examples: 1. What a pleasant surprise! 2. Help! I will drown. 3. Sit! 4. Alas! He is dead.

·         It is also used for short commands. Examples: 1. Get out! 2. Shut up! 3. Don’t touch!

·         Declarative, imperative or interrogative sentences may become exclamatory if spoken with strong feeling. Examples are as follows:

v  She forgot her purse. (Declarative)

v  She forgot her purse! (Exclamatory)

v  Wait for me. (Imperative)

v  Wait for me! (Exclamatory)

v  Did you sit here? (Interrogative)

v  Did you sit here! (Exclamatory)

INVERTED COMMAS (“”)

Inverted commas indicate the beginning and end of a quotation, or of the actual words used by the speaker.

·         Inverted commas are used to enclose the direct words of a speaker:

She said, “I will not go with him.”

v  If the direct quotation is broken by explanatory words, an extra set of quotation marks is used:

“He is not reliable, “She said, “I will not go with him.”

v  If the first part of a broken quotation is a complete sentence, the second part will begin with a capital letter:

“Ram is going to Delhi,” he said. “He hasn’t told you?”

v  If a quotation has more than one paragraph inverted commas will be used at the beginning of each paragraph and at the end of the last paragraph only.

·         In writing conversation, if there are two or more than two speakers, each speaker will have a paragraph to himself:

“Will you go to see her?” she asked.

“No, never!” he replied.

“But she is your mother you should go to her.” She said.

·         A single quotation mark is used for a quotation within a quotation: “This,” she said, “is clearly a case of ‘tit for tat’.”

·         The inverted commas are used to enclose the titles of books, magazines, newspapers, poems, stories, songs, etc.: “Joseph Andrews” by Henry Fielding is a satire on the contemporary society.

·         The inverted commas are used to draw special attention to a word or words: Any word beginning with the prefix “ab-“is accented on the first syllable.

·         The full stop or comma at the end of a direct quotation is always placed inside the inverted commas:

She said, “I will not go.”

“I will not go,” she said.

·         The semi-colon at the end of a direct quotation is always placed outside the inverted commas: She said, “I can’t carry on this relationship,” then she started crying.

·         A quotation mark or an exclamation mark at the end of the direct, quotation will be placed inside the inverted commas if it belongs to the quotation; but if it belongs to the whole sentence, it will be placed outside: Examples:

Rama asked, “Are you going to buy a car?”

Did Rama say, “Meenu is going to buy a car.”?

PRACTICE SET

􀁺 Have a little tea before you go said my aunt to me I am already full replied I

􀁺 Don’t be afraid O king said the stranger I have not come to steal your gold

􀁺 Stop he cried she shall not die

􀁺 Alas my dear son the king added after a little pause why do you ask a thing I cannot grant you

􀁺 Good bye he said we will meet again

􀁺 Child said Alladin’s mother to whom are we indebted for this it doesn’t matter said Alladin let us sit down and take our food

􀁺 Good morning boys said the teacher I suppose you have revised your lessons.

􀁺 The principal announced tomorrow will be a holiday

􀁺 You say said the judge that the bag you lost contained one hundred pounds yes your honour replied the man

􀁺 May God forgive you said the saint Go your way

APOSTROPHE (‘)

·         The apostrophe with ‘s’ is used to indicate possession: Ram’s book, dog’s tail, Sita’s pen etc.

·         It is used without ‘s’ to form the possessive of a plural noun ending in ‘s’: The parents’ decision, the girls’ team

·         It is used with ‘s’ to form the possessive of a plural noun that doesn’t end in ‘s’: Men’s uniform, children’s pencils.

·         It is used in place of omitted letters in contractions: ‘tis (it is); don’t (do not); shan’t (shall not); I’m (I am); I’ll (I will); It’s (It is); o’clock (of the clock)

·          It is used to form the plurals of letters, figures and signs: Examples:

1.        The number 6615886 contains three 6’s and two 8’s there are four.

2.         M.A.’s, four B.A.’s and four B.Com’s in our staff.

DASH (-)

11. The dash used to show a sudden change in thought:

He has decided to start his new business in- but have you seen his new car?

12. It is used along with a colon to introduce a quotation: Shakespeare says:-

13. It is used to summarize several subjects all belonging to the same verb: Rahul, Neetu, Mitu amd Suman- no one went there to see her.

HYPHEN (-)

The hyphen is a smaller stroke as compared to the dash. It is used to join the parts of a compound word: Examples: 1. Brother-in-law, 2. Commander-in-chief, 3. Looker-on 4. Maid-servant

CAPITALIZATION

Capital letters are used in the following cases:

·         The first word of every sentence: Man is mortal.

·         The first word of every line of a poem:

“For oft when on my couch I lie

In vacant or in……………….”

·         The first letter of a quotation: Ram said, “She will go with me.”

·         All proper nouns, proper adjectives and personified objects:

India, Russia

Indians, Russians

O Death, O Sleep

·         All nouns and pronouns used in reference to God:

O Lord, consider me Thy servant.

·         The pronoun ‘I’ is written in capital.

·         The interjection ‘O’ is written in capital.

·         Letters denoting abbreviation are written in capita: L.L.B., B.Sc., M.A., M.Phil.

·         Names of the days of the week and of the months of the year:

Sunday, Monday, January, October

·         Names of books, newspapers, magazines, etc.:

‘Arms and the Man’, ‘Indian Express’, ‘India Today’.

·         Important events: The French Revolution, The Renaissance

PRACTICE SET

Add the correct punctuation to any five of the following sentences:

􀁺 Ana asked why do we need another phone?

􀁺 This new phone service is great said one busy executive.

􀁺 I don’t like telephones Marina said they ring too often.

􀁺 My sister asked can this telephone really turn on your lights?

􀁺 We need a phone that answers itself the busy secretary said.

􀁺 I am going to get a car phone Davis said.

􀁺 When he asked are we going to get a mobile phone?

􀁺 The four combinations possible are red green green blue blue yellow and yellow red

􀁺 Certainly not he asserted you will not go there

􀁺 I shall go if you insist

􀁺 Do you still wish to go there

􀁺 Six hundred policemen he whispered will be there to greet you young man

􀁺 The snake climbed the branch slowly and disappeared

􀁺 Very easy sentences commented the student

􀁺 Pencils erasers sharpeners clip pins and paper-cutters were all ling on the table

Summary:

In this lesson we have learnt how to use full stop, comma, colon, semi-colon, capital letter, etc in sentences, as also the rules of punctuation and capitalization.

Key words: Punctuation, capitalization.

Self Assessment Questions

Punctuate the following sentences:

􀁺 My friend is danger he said to himself let me help him if I can

􀁺 The mouse heard the lions roar

􀁺 The boy shouted wolf the farmers left their fields and came to him where is the wolf they cried the boy laughed and said nothing

􀁺 Sorely my disappointed he said these grapes are sour why should I waste my time for them

􀁺 Some want to catch the bus for Okhla others want to go Kutumb.

􀁺 Sandal wood the more it is rubbed the more scent does it yield

􀁺 Surrender exclaimed joyfully how wonderful to have met you Suresh and other friends again.

􀁺 Whats today its diwali a festival of hindus

􀁺 Go then said my father and jump into the river.

􀁺 Do you really want work said the merchant yes you have any replied the boy then follow me and carry this box to my house

􀁺 The teacher told the class that the earth is round

􀁺 The stranger asked me why I wasted my time

􀁺 Who would not like to be a teacher

􀁺 Give everyman thy ear but few thy voice

􀁺 He was caught red-handed therefore ha was arrested and sent to prison

􀁺 He acts like a child he goes first here and then there and no one knows what to do with him

􀁺 This is the same house where Gandhi Ji was born

􀁺 The meeting will be held at 6 pm tomorrow

􀁺 In he sentence Punit killed the snake the verb killed is in the active voice

􀁺 He has got a weeks holiday

􀁺 Simple living and high thinking is a principle of his life

􀁺 After a few months stay I ran away

􀁺 I steal or beg my food fight with my enemies run about the streets from sunrise to sun set smell at every house and now and then receive a kick

􀁺 Distinguish a true friend from a false one is a wise saying

􀁺 Our motto should be play up play up the game

􀁺 William Wordsworth says my heart leaps up when I behold a rainbow in the sky

􀁺 It was July 1990 early in the morning when he woke up

􀁺 An international industrial exhibition was arranged b Indian government in Delhi.

􀁺 The word Diwali is a contraction of Sanskrit word Deepavali but do you have time to listen to me

􀁺 Shakespeare says” Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown:”

􀁺 Akbar the great Mughal Emperor was a lover of music

􀁺 to err is human to forgive divine

􀁺 you have had three accidents consequently you may not borrow the car

􀁺 I came I saw I conquered

􀁺 Guru Nanak Dev says truth is great

􀁺 Shakespeare wrote four tragedies Hamlet Mcbeth King Leare and Othello.

􀁺 The problem is this how we will reach there without the address

􀁺 As Ceaser loved me I weep for him As he fortunate I rejoice at it But as he was ambitious I slew him

􀁺 I had to meet my boss yesterday therefore I couldn’t come to your place

􀁺 She is quite and studious he is noisy and active

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Commom Error In English: Read and get improved.

COMMON ERRORS IN ENGLISH

STRUCTURE

ü Objective

ü Introduction

ü Common Errors in the use of Nouns

ü Nouns used in singular form

ü Nouns used in plural form

ü Nouns used as both singular and plural in the same form

ü Some other important rules

ü Practice Set

ü Self Assessment Questions

ü Common Errors in the use of Pronouns

ü Some rules

ü Practice Set

ü Common Errors in the use of Adjectives

ü Practice Set

ü Common Errors in the use of Adverbs

ü Practice Set

ü Common Errors in the use of Articles

ü Indefinite articles: A, An

ü Definite article: The

ü No article:

ü Practice Set

ü Common Errors in the use of Conjunctions:

ü Practice Set

ü Summary

ü Key words

ü Self Assessment Questions

Objective:

Most teachers of English in India have to devote much time to eradicate certain constantly recurring mistakes committed by their students. The reasons being:

• The students are in the habit of thinking in their mother tongue and when they have to express themselves in English, they resort to a literal translation.

• The students neglect the rules of grammar. This section seeks to discuss the common mistakes a student commits while using English. After studying this section, the students should be able to write grammatically correct sentences.

Introduction:

Spotting Common Errors in English requires as awareness of the basic rules of grammar – parts of speech, noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, etc. Mastery of these rules is very important for writing effectively, and leads to greater clarity, accuracy and style in writing.

Common Errors in the use of Nouns

Nouns used in singular form:

• The following nouns are generally used in the singular form: Scenery, information, clothing, luggage, furniture, advice, machinery, bedding, stationery, news, offspring, repair, issue, poetry, business, mischief.

Wrong: He has gathered a lot of informations.

Right: He has gathered a lot of information.

Wrong: The furnitures were put to auction.

Right: The furniture was put to auction.

• The following nouns though plural in form are used as singular:

(a) Branches of learning: Mathematics, Economics, Physics, Statistics.

(b) Diseases: Mumps, measles.

(c) Games and sports: Billiards, gymnastics, athletics.

(d) Miscellaneous: News, summons, innings, gallows.

Wrong: The Mathematics are a scoring subject.

Right: The Mathematics is a scoring subject.

Wrong: Summons were served on him.

Right: Summons was served on him.

• Expressions as a ten-rupee note, a two-mile walk, a five-year old child, a three-day workshop, a twenty-man committee are used as singular.

Wrong: I found a ten-rupees note.

Right: I found a ten-rupee note.

Wrong: She has a three-years old child.

Right: She has a three-year old child.

• Words like dozen, score, head, pair, hundred, million when used after a numeral are used as singular.

Wrong: I bought four pairs of socks.

Right: I bought four pair of socks.

Nouns used in plural form:

1.0 The nouns like socks, trousers, pyjamas, stockings, shorts, scissors, spectacles, alms, ashes, assets, riches, remains, goods, etc. are always used in plural form.

Wrong: The scissor is not sharp Or The scissors is not sharp.

Right: The scissors are not sharp.

Wrong: The stocking is very tight.

Right: The stockings are very tight.

2. The nouns like cattle, police, gentry, poultry, people, etc. are also used in plural form.

Wrong: The cattle is grazing in the fields Or The cattles are grazing in the fields.

Right: The cattle are grazing in the fields.

Wrong: The police has caught the thief.

Right: The police have caught the thief.

Nouns used as both singular and plural in the same form:

1. The nouns like fish, sheep, deer, series, wages, etc. can be used as both singular and plural.

Right: The wages of sin is death.

Right: The wages have been raised.

But wrong: The wage of ________________.

Right: A fish was lying on the sea-shore.

Right: Two fish were lying on the sea-shore.

But wrong: Two fishes _________________.

2. The nouns like jury, public, audience, team, committee, government, etc. can be used as both singular and plural.

Right: The committee is meeting today.

Right: The committee are divided in its opinion.

Some other important rules:

1 The plural of a compound noun is formed by adding ‘s’ to the principal word:

Singular                                                            Plural

Sister-in-law                                                      Sisters-in-law

Passer-by                                                           Passers-by

Commander-in-chief                                          Commanders-in-chief

2 (a) The possessive case of a noun is formed by adding ‘s’:

Boy’s book, Sheela’s pen, etc.

(b) But ‘s is used only for living things. For non-living things, we use ‘of’:

Wrong: The telephone’s cable is damaged.

Right: The cable of the telephone is damaged.

Wrong: The child broke the table’s leg.

Right: The child broke the leg of the table.

(c) When a plural noun ends in ‘s’, the possessive is formed by adding an apostrophe after ‘s’. However, when the plural does not end in ‘s’, apostrophe ‘s’ is added as it is: Boys’ hostel; Girls’ hostel; but Men’s club.

3. When two nouns show common possession,‘s is added to the last one: Wren and Martin’s Grammar can be very useful to you. (This means one grammar book written by two persons)

Note: When two nouns indicate separate possessions,‘s is added to both of them: Tilak’s and Sen’s grammars can be helpful to you.

4. ‘One of” or ‘any of’ are always followed by plural words: One of my friends is going abroad.

Assessment Questions

Correct the following sentences:

1. I have lost my spectacle somewhere.

2. A five-rupees note was lying there.

3. India played a great inning.

4. She has no offsprings.

5. The judge issued order.

6. Here are the news.

7. The pond is full of fishes.

8. My house’s roof is leaking.

9. No pain no gain.

10. Mother-in laws are seldom respected by their daughter-in-laws.

Common Errors in the use of Pronouns:

A pronoun is used in place of a noun as:

1. Nominative case: I, We, He, She, They, Who. (It comes before the verb as the subject of the sentence.)

2. Objective case: Me, Us, Him, Her, Them, Whom. (It comes after the verb)

3. Possessive case: My, Our, His, Her, Their, Whose.

4. Reflexive case: Myself, Ourselves, Himself, Herself, Themselves -

Some rules:

􀁺 Pronouns have the same number, gender and person as that of their antecedent. Examples: 1.Sheela is a good girl. 2. She respects her elders.

􀁺 It is used for lifeless things, for animals, and for a baby. Example: He likes his cat and takes good care of it.

􀁺 When two singular pronouns are joined by ‘and’ and refer to the same thing, the pronoun will be singular. Example: The peon and attendant is absent from his duty.

􀁺 Sometimes a pronoun refers to more than one noun or pronoun of different persons, in this case, the order will be as follows: You, he and I or He and I. The first person will come in the end. But in admitting a fault, we use the first person first, then, the third, and the second person last of all. The order will be as follows: I, he and you are at fault.

􀁺 The complement of the verb ‘to be’ should be in the Nominative case. Examples: (1) It is I. (2) If I were he, I would not do it.

􀁺 In the sentence beginning with ‘let’, a pronoun in the objective case is used: Examples: 1. Let us go there. 2. Let me help you.

􀁺 The pronouns following ‘than’ or ‘as’ can be in the Objective as well as the Nominative case, depending upon the meaning of the sentence. Examples: 1. I love you more than he. (This means more than he - a third person- loves you.). 2. I love you more than him. (This means more than I love the other person.)

􀁺 ‘Who’ is used for persons while ‘which’ is used for animals and lifeless objects that can be used for both. Examples: I am looking for the boy who has taken my book. 2. This is the dress which I like the most.

􀁺 The pronoun ‘one’ must be followed by ‘one’s’:

Wrong: One must keep his word.

Right: One must keep one’s word.

􀁺 A relative pronoun should be placed near its antecedent:

Wrong: I have read Shakespeare’s plays who was a great dramatist.

Right: I have read the plays of Shakespeare who was a great dramatist.

􀁺 ‘Each other’ is used for two; ‘one another’, for more than two. Examples: 1. The two brothers love each other. 2. All the members of the family respect one another.

􀁺 Verbs like pride, resign, enjoy, avail, apply, absent, assert, acquit are followed by reflexive pronoun:

Wrong: He resigned to fate.

Right: He resigned himself to fate.

Wrong: They enjoyed in the party.

Right: They enjoyed themselves in the party.

􀁺 Verbs like stay, conceal, qualified, keep, rest, spread are never followed by reflexive pronoun:

Wrong: He kept himself away from the game.

Right: He kept away from the game.

Common Errors in the use of Adjectives:

An Adjective adds something to the meaning of or qualifies a Noun or a Pronoun.

􀁺 When there is no comparison, we use the positive degree: Reena is a good girl.

􀁺 When we compare two or more persons or things, we use the comparative degree:

Reena is better than Kavita.

􀁺 When the ultimate comparison stating the highest degree is made between many persons or things, we use the superlative degree. It is always preceded by ‘the’: Reena is the best of all girls.

􀁺 The comparative degree can be formed either by adding ‘er’ to the adjective or writing ‘more’ before it, as the case may be. However, we will use only one form of the comparative degree:

Wrong: Reena is more better than Kavita.

Right: Reena is better than Kavita.

􀁺 When comparative degree is used in superlative sense, it is followed by ‘any other’:

She is taller than any other girl in the class.

􀁺 Some adjectives like excellent, ideal, perfect, unique, supreme, extreme, chief, complete, universal, entire, eternal, unanimous, infinite, perpetual, round, impossible, etc. are not to be compared:

Wrong: Your work is the most excellent.

Right: Your work is excellent.

Wrong: This is the most perfect solution to the problem.

Right: This is a perfect solution to the problem.

􀁺 Certain comparative adjectives ending in ‘ior’ (Junior, senior, prior, superior, inferior, posterior) have no comparative or superlative degree. These are always followed by ‘to’. Examples: 1. He is junior to me. 2. Kavita is inferior to Reena in intelligence.

􀁺 Adjectives like preferable, likely, sure, certain, etc. are followed by ‘to’. Examples: 1. It is likely to rain. 2. Death is preferable to dishonour.

􀁺 Less, fewer: Less refers to quantity; fewer denotes number.

􀁺 Some, any: Some is used in Affirmative sentences; any in negative or Interrogative sentences: I will buy some books (Affirmative). I will not buy any book (Negative).

􀁺 Little, a little and the little: Little denotes quantity and means ‘not much’ (hardly any). It has a negative meaning. A little means ‘at least some’. The little means the whole amount that is there. There is little hope of his recovery (This means there is no hope). There is a little hope of his recovery (This means there is some hope). He has spent the little money he had (This means all that he had).

􀁺 Similarly, few, a few and the few: Few denotes number: I have few books on this subject (This means hardly any-no). I have a few books on this subject (This means at least some). I gave him the few books I had on this subject.

􀁺 Much, many: Much refers to quantity and many refers to number.

􀁺 Last, latest: Last refers to the final one; latest is last up to the present. What is the latest score? The last bus to Delhi leaves at 6.00 PM.

􀁺 Older, elder: Older is used for both persons and things. It refers to age; Elder is used for persons only. It conveys the idea of seniority or of the first born in a family.

􀁺 Later, latter: Later refers to time; latter means the second of the two things.

Common Errors in the use of Adverbs:

An Adverb is a word that qualifies a verb, an adjective and another adverb.

1. Adverbs of manner, place and time are usually placed after the verb or the object. Examples: 1. He was talking slowly. 2. He helped me sincerely.

2.0 Adverbs of frequency such as always, ever, never, often, seldom, usually, rarely, etc. and some other adverbs like already, almost, just, quite, nearly, hardly, etc. are placed between the subject and the verb. Examples: 1. I rarely go there. 2. He hardly knows her.

3.0 The auxiliaries ‘have to’ and ‘used to’ come after the adverb: He often used to go there.

4. The adverb ‘enough’ is used after the word it qualifies: He was kind enough to help me.

5. ‘Only’ is used immediately before the word it modifies: I have only two books.

6. Very; much: Very is used with an adverb or an adjective; much is used with a verb. Examples:

1. He knows you very well. 2. He does not like tea much.

􀁺 ‘Too’ implies more than enough and therefore, should never be used in place of ‘very’:

Wrong: I am too lucky.

Right: I am very lucky.

‘Too --- to’ has a negative sense:

She is too young to marry.

‘Too” can also be used in the sense of ‘also’; example; Reena, too, will go with us.

Common Errors in the use of Articles:

1.  Indefinite articles: A, An:

􀁺 A is used before words beginning with consonant sound: A boy, a table, etc.

􀁺 It is used with vowel letters having the sound of a consonant: A university, a European.

􀁺 An is used before words beginning with vowel sounds: An apple, an umbrella, etc.

􀁺 It is also used before words beginning with consonant letter having the sound of a vowel: An M.L.A (‘M’ has the sound of ‘em’), an X-ray.

􀁺 An is also used before words beginning with silent ‘h’: An honest man, an hour.

2.  Definite article: The:

􀁺 ‘The’ is used when we speak of a particular person or a thing already referred to: This is the book I was looking for.

􀁺 It is also used when a singular noun represents the whole class: The horse is a very useful animal.

Note: This rule does not apply to the noun ‘man’ when it refers to human race as a whole.

􀁺 It is used before the adjective in the superlative degree: She is the most beautiful girl in the class.

􀁺 It is used before adjective of quality which stands for a class: The rich should help the poor.

􀁺 It is used before the names of the mountain ranges: The Himalayas, the Alps.

􀁺 It is used before the names of rivers, canals, deserts, etc.: The Ganga, the Bhakra canal, the Sahara desert.

􀁺 It is used before the names of religious books: The Ramayana, the Koran, etc.

􀁺 It is used before the names of the newspapers: The Tribune, the Times of India, etc.

􀁺 It is used before single objects that are well known: The earth, the sun, etc.

􀁺 It is used before a proper noun to give it the meaning of a common noun: Kalidas is called the Shakespeare of India.

􀁺 It is used before the names of a country if it is made up of smaller units: The United States of America, The Netherlands.

 􀁺 It is used before the names of trains and ships: The Taj Express, The Sagar Samrat.

3.  No article:

􀁺 No article is used generally before the names of substances: Silver is a poor substitute for gold.

􀁺 No article is used before the names of meals: I went without dinner last night.

􀁺 No article is used generally before the plural nouns. Examples: 1. Students must work hard to get good marks. 2. Mangoes are grown in many countries.

􀁺 No article is used before the names of games, countries, proper nouns, abstract nouns, diseases, etc. Examples: 1. I like to play hockey. 2. My cousin lives in England. 3. I met Ran yesterday. 4. Honesty is the best policy.

4.  Common Errors in the use of Conjunctions:

Conjunction is a word that joins different words or sentences. For example, if, but, yet, either, or, because, etc. Some rules relating to the use of conjunctions are:

􀁺 Scarcely and hardly are followed by ‘when’, and not by ‘than’. Examples: 1. Scarcely had I left the station when it started raining. 2. She had hardly reached the station when the train arrived.

􀁺 No sooner and no other are followed by “than”. Examples: 1. No sooner did the doctor leave the place than the patient died. 2. He has no other friend than you.

􀁺 Both is followed by and, not by as well as; it is placed immediately before the word the it refers to: She is both beautiful and wise.

􀁺 Not only is followed by but also: She is not only beautiful but also wise.

􀁺 Lest is followed by should: Work hard lest you should fail.

􀁺 Neither is followed by nor and either is followed by or: She is neither smart nor intelligent. Either he is the culprit or Ram is.

Summary:

In this lesson we have learnt how to write grammatically correct, balanced and complete sentences.

Key words: Noun, pronoun, adjective, adverb, conjunction, articles, etc.

Self Assessment Questions

Correct the following sentences:

1. All my family members decided to go there.

2. Our teacher will take a test.

3. Open the ninth page of your book.

4. He is my cousin brother.

5. This house comprises of five rooms.

6. Stop to write.

7. Our army has done well.

8. Being a wet day, he stayed at home.

9. The man is mortal.

10. He is M.A.

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